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| Fig. 1: 2021 Electricity generation by fuel source. [11] (Image source: A. Ee) |
South Korea is a global leader in nuclear energy - ranked fifth in the number of power plants and is also an exporter of nuclear power technology. [1] Developments in nuclear energy occurred since 1957, when it became a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the number of nuclear plants has steadily increased ever since. As a resource-scarce country heavily reliant on exports: in 2019, exports constituted 40% of its total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) - greater than many other modernized economies and these exports are primarily from the petrochemical and steel sectors which in turn rely on fossil fuels, nuclear energy offered an excellent alternative to fossil fuel imports and enable energy security. [2] Additionally, as a responsible country in global efforts to tackle climate change and global warming, and having ratified the 2015 Paris agreement, pledging to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by about 40% by 2030 and to be carbon-neutral by 2050, nuclear energy being a low-carbon technology and helps reduce emission of greenhouse gases could assist South Korea in achieving these goals. [3]
At the time of writing, South Korea generates about 24,489 MWe net capacity of nuclear energy across its 25 nuclear power plants located at four Nuclear Power Complexes: Kori, Wolsong, Hanbit and Hanul. A breakdown of the total capacity is provided in Table 1. [4]
In 1978, South Korea's first nuclear power plant, Kori-1, was connected to the grid. It was a 576 MWe net (607 MWe gross) pressurized water reactor (PWR) unit based on Westinghouse technology. Kori-1 has since been shut down permanently in 2017 due to safety concerns. Construction of three other plants: Kori-2 to Kori-4 were performed in the same complex, located in the cities of Ulsan and Busan from 1977 - 1981. Kori-2, a 640 MWe net (681 MWe gross) PWR unit commenced commercial operations on July 1983. Kori-3, a 1011 MWe net (1046 MWe gross) PWR unit and Kori-4, a 1012 MWe net (1046 MWe gross) PWR unit were connected to the grid on September 1985 and April 1986 respectively. All three were PWR units based on the Westinghouse and Framatome (WHF) design. [5]
Between 2006 - 2010, four new nuclear power plants underwent construction in the same nuclear power complex. Shin-Kori-1, a PWR unit with 996 MWe net (1048 MWe gross) capacity started supplying electricity on February 2011. A twin unit, Shin-Kori-2, a 996 MWe net (1047 MWe gross) PWR unit began operations on July 2012. These two PWR units have a new design: Optimized Power Reactor (OPR-1000) which was developed locally, by Korea Nuclear and Hydro Power (KHNP) and Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO). OPR-1000 is a two-loop Generation-II nuclear reactor. [6] The next two units, Saeul-1, a 1416 MWe net (1488 MWe gross) PWR unit and Saeul-2, a 1418 MWe net (1491 MWe gross) PWR unit were connected to the grid on December 2016 and August 2019 respectively. Both Saeul-1 and Saeul-2 have PWR units that feature an even newer design: Advanced Power Reactor (APR-1400), a Generation III PWR, which is an improved version of the OPR-1000 also developed locally. [5,7]
In the 1990s, three nuclear power plants began construction in the Wolsong Nuclear Power Complex, located in the city of Gyeongju, just slightly north of the Kori Nuclear Power Complex. Wolsong-2, a pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR) unit with 569 MWe net (599 MWe gross) capacity was connected to the grid on June 1997. A second PHWR unit, Wolsong-3, with 605 MWe net (624 MWe gross) capacity was connected to the grid on June 1998. A third 574 MWe net (589 MWe gross) PHWR unit, Wolsong-4, started commercial operations on September 1999. All three PHWR units are based on the CANDU (Canadian Deuterium Uranium) technology, one of three major reactor technologies in the world. [8]
Two more nuclear plants based on the OPR-1000 technology each with 1048 MWe gross capacity started constructions in the same nuclear power complex between 2007 and 2008. Shin-Wolsong-1, a PWR unit with 997 MWe net capacity was connected to the grid on July 2012. In 2008, Shin-Wolsong-2, a 993 MWe net PWR unit commenced operations on July 2015. [5]
The Hanbit Nuclear Power Complex, located at Yeonggwang-gun houses six nuclear power plants which began construction from 1981 - 1998. These plants were constructed to meet an ambitious target of 46 new plants by 2000 triggered by the 1970 oil supply crisis. [9] Two units, Hanbit-1, a 995 MWe net (1025 MWe gross) PWR unit and Hanbit-2, a 988 MWe net (1024 MWe gross) PWR unit started construction in 1981. Hanbit-1 and Hanbit-2 commenced commercial operations on August 1986 and June 1987 respectively. Both PWR units are based on the Westinghouse and Framatome design. The next two units with 1041 MWe gross capacity, Hanbit-3, a 986 MWe net PWR unit and Hanbit-4, a 970 MWe net PWR unit both based on the OPR-1000 technology underwent construction from 1989 - 1991. Hanbit-3 was connected to the grid on March 1995, and Hanbit-4 six months later. The fifth and sixth units also based on the OPR-1000 technology started construction in 1997: Hanbit-5, a 992 MWe net (1051 MWe gross) PWR unit and Hanbit-6, a 993 MWe net (1053 MWe gross) PWR unit began supplying electricity to the nation on May 2002 and December 2002 respectively. [4]
The Hanul Nuclear Power Complex, located at Ulchin-gun houses seven nuclear power plants, with the seventh commencing operations just a year ago. Hanul-1, a 966 MWe net (1014 MWe gross) PWR unit and Hanul-2, a 967 MWe net (1011 MWe gross) PWR unit both started constructions in 1983 and commenced commercial operations on September 1988 and September 1989 respectively. Both PWR units are based on the three-loop France CP1 technology. [10] Four new plants based on the OPR-1000 design underwent construction from 1993 - 2001 on the same complex. Hanul-3, a 997 MWe net (1051 MWe gross) PWR unit and Hanul-4, a 999 MWe net (1052 MWe gross) PWR unit were connected to the grid on August 1998 and December 1999 respectively. The next two units with 1049 MWe gross capacity, Hanul-5, a 998 MWe net PWR unit and Hanul-6, a 997 MWe net PWR unit started supplying electricity on July 2004 and April 2005 respectively. The latest addition to the nuclear fleet, Shin-Hanul-1, a 1414 MWe net (1455 MWe gross) PWR unit based on the APR-1400 design commenced commercial operations on December 2022. [4]
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| Table 1: Total and individual amount of nuclear energy generated by South Korea's power plants. [4] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
According to BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2022, South Korea generated about 600.4 Terawatt-hours (TWh) of electricity in 2021. [11] This corresponds to an average power of
| 600.4 × 1012 Wh y-1 24 h d-1 × 365 d y-1 |
= | 68.54 GWe |
Since 24, 489 MWe net capacity of nuclear energy is generated across its 25 operating nuclear power plants, the fraction of energy that is nuclear is
| 24.489 GWe 68.54 GWe |
= | 0.357 |
Nuclear energy now constitutes more than a third (about 36%) of electricity generation in South Korea, rendering it one of the highest in nuclear share of electricity generation in the world. The rest of electricity generation is provided by fossil fuels, hydropower and renewable energy. Fig. 1 shows the breakdown of South Korea's fuel sources in 2021. [11] Evidently, South Korea is a global leader in nuclear energy. Coupled with the burgeoning renewable energy sector, it is in good stead for energy security and to be carbon-neutral by 2050. [12]
The future of nuclear energy in South Korea is promising with the new administration of President Yoon Suk Yeol. Nuclear energy capacity is expected to increase to 31.7 GWe by 2036. Three new nuclear power plants are under construction, two (Saeul-3 and Saeul-4) at the Kori Nuclear Power Complex and one (Shin-Hanul-2) at the Hanul Nuclear Power Complex. All three use the APR-1400 reactor and each have 1340 MWe net and 1400 MWe gross capacity. Additionally, South Korea targets to export ten nuclear power plants by 2030 and is also helping to construct nuclear power plants in United Arab Emirates (UAE). [13]
Radioactive waste disposal is a key issue often cited by opponents of nuclear energy and have led to numerous protests. It is also not resolved by other countries, including fellow leaders in nuclear energy like the United States, France and Japan. [14] However, South Korea has taken steps to resolve this. Most notably, in 2014, the first phase of Wolsung Low and Intermediate Level Waste Repository (LILW), situated underground (about 130 meters below sea level) at Gyeongju in North Gyeongsang province was completed and began operations. It consists of 6 silos that can hold about 100, 000 drums. The second phase, a near-surface repository, which can hold about 125,000 drums is estimated to be completed in 2024. The entire facility is expected to store a total of 800, 000 drums. Every day, about 32 waste drums are placed into the silos since its operations. [15] Additionally, there are plans to finish the construction of an interim facility to store spent nuclear fuel by 2035 and a deep geological repository for permanent disposal by 2053. [5] These sites enable the disposal of radioactive wastes, which are currently stored in nuclear plant complexes in wet pool or dry cask conditions, thereby minimizing radioactivity and accidents. [14]
© Aloysius Ee. The author warrants that the work is the author's own and that Stanford University provided no input other than typesetting and referencing guidelines. The author grants permission to copy, distribute and display this work in unaltered form, with attribution to the author, for noncommercial purposes only. All other rights, including commercial rights, are reserved to the author.
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[12] B. Wang and M. Gopal, "Climate Action Brief: South Korea," Asia Society Policy Institute, September 2023.
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[14] Van Ness, P., & Gurtov, M. (2017). Learning from Fukushima: Nuclear Power in East Asia. ANU Press.
[15] IAEA. (2020). Design Principles and Approaches for Radioactive Waste Repositories. International Atomic Energy Agency.